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Biological characteristics of flax, growing conditions. Rye: varieties, features and prospects for growing When and how to sow rye as green manure

There are two directions in flax growing in our country, the main one is the cultivation of flax for fiber and seeds. Oilseed flax is cultivated to produce oil.

A variety of fabrics are produced from fiber flax - from coarse bag, technical and packaging to thin cambric and lace. Technical fabrics made from flax are used in many industries. Tarpaulins, drive belts, hoses, twisted threads, etc. are made from flax fiber. Linen yarn is stronger than cotton and wool and is second only to silk in this regard. Linen fabrics and products (linen, canvas, tablecloths, towels, etc.) are distinguished by their great strength and beauty.

Short flax fiber (waste, tow, tow) is used as wiping and packaging material, and flax kernels (the wood of the stems after the fiber has been separated) are used for the production of paper, construction slabs and insulating materials, as well as fuel.

Seeds of oilseed flax varieties contain 35-45% oil, which is used in food, soap, paint, rubber and other industries.

Flaxseed cake, containing up to 30-36% protein and up to 32% digestible nitrogen-free substances, is a highly concentrated feed for animals, especially for young animals. The nutritional value of 1 kg of flaxseed meal is 1.2 feed, units, it contains about 280 g of digestible protein. Flaxseeds are used in medicine and veterinary medicine.

The most ancient historical centers of flax cultivation are the mountainous regions of India and China. 4-5 thousand years BC. e. flax was grown in Egypt, Assyria and Mesopotamia. There is an assumption that cultivated flax comes from South-West and East Asia (large-seeded forms - from the Mediterranean).

The cultivation of flax for fiber is widespread in the Netherlands, Belgium, France, England, the GDR, Czechoslovakia and other countries. In Japan, the USA, and Canada, flax is grown for fiber on a small scale.

In 1987, 0.97 million hectares were occupied by fiber flax in the CIS. The main areas of cultivation for fiber (55% of the total area) are concentrated in most regions of the Non-Black Earth zone of the European part of our country. Recently, fiber flax crops have been expanded in the Baltic republics, in the north and west of Ukraine, and in Western Siberia. Oilseed flax is much less widespread in the CIS (200 thousand hectares).

In our country, flax has been known since ancient times. In the 12th century. it was cultivated in the Novgorod and Pskov principalities. Vologda, Pskov, Kostroma, and Kashin flax have been famous since ancient times. In the 16th century The first rope factory appeared in Russia. In 1711, Peter I issued a decree on the cultivation of flax in all provinces. State linen factories were created, which wove wide fabrics for sails and other needs. Currently, the Soviet Union ranks first in world agriculture in the production of flax fiber.

Botanical characteristics . Of the 45 species of flax cultivated in our country (there are 200 species in the world), one species is of industrial importance - cultivated flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), from the flax family (Linaceae). The Eurasian subspecies of this species has ssp. eurasiaticum Vav. et Ell - three varieties are known (Fig. 39).

Fiber flax (v. elongata) is cultivated mainly for its fiber. The stem is from 60 to 175 cm high, branching only in the upper part. There are few seed pods (with dense sowing 2-3 pods, on average 6-10). The productive (technical) part of the fiber flax stem begins from the location of the cotyledons to the first branch of the inflorescence. The most valuable flax fiber is obtained from this part (up to 26-31%). Fiber flax is cultivated in areas with a moderately warm, humid and mild climate. The weight of 1000 seeds is 3-6 g. When they swell, they mucus and absorb 100-180% of water.

Mezheumok flax (v. untermedia) is cultivated mainly for its seeds to obtain oil. Occupies an intermediate position between long flax and curly flax. The stem is 55-65 cm high, less branched than that of the curly tree, but much shorter than that of the long tree.

Produces more bolls (15-25) than fiber flax. The quality and length of the fiber is inferior to fiber flax. Fiber yield is 16-18% (shredded - 13-14%). Mezheumok is distributed in the forest-steppe part of Ukraine, Kursk, Voronezh, Kuibyshev, Saratov regions, Bashkiria and Tatarstan, the North Caucasus, and partly in Siberia.

Curly flax, or stag flax (v. brevimulticaulia), is cultivated in the republics of Central Asia and Transcaucasia. It has a short (30-45 cm) branching stem with 35-50 bolls. It is cultivated for seeds, from which oil is obtained (35-45%). The fiber is short and of low quality. The most suitable areas for oilseed flax are those with relatively dry and warm summers with a predominance of sunny days.

The structure of the stem. Flax fiber. In the fiber flax harvest, about 75-80% comes from stems, about 10-12% from seeds and the same amount from chaff and other waste. Flax stems contain 20-30% fiber, which consists of fiber (88-90%), pectin (6-7%) and waxy (3%) substances and ash (1-2%).

At the base of the fiber flax stem, the fiber is thick, coarse, partially lignified and makes up about 12% of the mass of the corresponding part of the stem. Towards the middle part of the stem, the fiber content increases to 35%. This is the most valuable, thin, strong and long fiber, with the smallest cavity inside and thick walls. In the upper part, the amount of fiber decreases to 28-30% and its quality decreases: the fibers have larger clearance and thinner walls.

High-quality fiber should be long, thin, without a large cavity, thin-layered, smooth, and clean on the surface. The main indicators of its quality: length, strength, shine, elasticity, softness, cleanliness from the fire, absence of traces of rust and other diseases.

Biological features . Fiber flax works best in moderately warm areas with an even climate, with sufficient rainfall and cloud cover (in diffused light).

Moderate temperatures of spring and summer with intermittent rain and cloudy weather are favorable for flax growth. Flax germinates well and grows at temperatures not exceeding 16-17 °C. Its seeds are able to germinate at 2-5°C, and seedlings tolerate frosts down to -3...-5°C. High temperatures (above 18-22 °C) and sharp daily fluctuations inhibit flax, especially during the budding period, when it grows vigorously. The sum of active temperatures required for the full development cycle is 1000-1300 °C, depending on the length of the growing season of the variety. The growing season ranges from 70-100 days.

Fiber flax is a moisture-loving, long-day plant. Transpiration coefficient 400-450. When seeds swell in the soil, they absorb at least 100% of water relative to their own weight. It is especially demanding of moisture during the budding - flowering period, when soil moisture of about 70% NV is required to form a high yield. However, frequent rains after flowering are unfavorable: flax can lie down and be affected by fungal diseases. In areas with close groundwater levels, flax does not succeed well. During the ripening period, dry, moderately warm and sunny weather is most favorable.

The following phases are distinguished in the development of fiber flax: germination, sprouting, budding, flowering and ripening. In the initial period (about 1 month), flax grows very slowly. The most vigorous growth is observed before budding and in the budding phase, when daily growth reaches 4-5 cm. At this time, it is especially important to create favorable conditions for nutrition and water supply. At the end of budding and the beginning of flowering, flax growth slows down, and by the end of flowering it stops. Therefore, agricultural practices that lead to a delay in flowering (feeding with fertilizers, regulating the water regime, etc.) help lengthen the stem and improve the quality of the fiber. In a short (2 weeks) period of increased growth, flax consumes more than half of the total amount of nutrients.

The critical period of nitrogen requirement is observed from the “herringbone” phase to budding, for phosphorus - during the initial period of growth until the phase of 5-6 pairs of leaves, for potassium - in the first 20 days of life. With a lack of essential nutrients during these periods, flax yields decrease sharply. The maximum consumption of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was noted in the budding phase (before flowering), as well as during seed formation.

Due to the weak assimilation capacity of flax roots and the short period of increased stem growth, flax is very demanding on soil fertility. It requires soils of medium cohesion (medium loam), sufficiently moist, fertile and well aerated, free from weeds. Light sandy loam and sandy soils are less suitable for fiber flax. Heavy, clayey, cold, prone to floating and the formation of a soil crust, as well as acidic, swampy soils with close groundwater without radical improvement are unsuitable for flax cultivation. A slightly acidic soil reaction is preferred - pH 5.9-6.3.

When flax is placed on good predecessors, with liming and the correct fertilization system, flax produces high yields of good fiber on a wide variety of podzolic soils. On soils with excess lime content, the fiber is coarse and brittle. On poor soils, fiber flax plants grow short, and on rich soils they lie down.

The All-Union Flax Research Institute has developed an intensive technology for cultivating fiber flax. Its successful and complete application is designed to produce 0.55-0.8 t/ha of flax fiber and 0.45-0.5 t/ha of seeds. This technology includes: concentration of fiber flax crops in specialized farms, sowing flax in 2-3 crop rotations, placement of flax after the best predecessors, introduction of mineral and organic fertilizers in crop rotation in scientifically based doses calculated for the planned harvest, basic tillage of the semi-fallow type , improved pre-sowing tillage, sowing at optimal times with seeds of the first and second classes with a seeding rate of 18-22 million/ha of viable seeds, the use of an integrated plant protection system, pre-harvest desiccation, mechanized harvesting and sale of at least 50% of the crop in the form of straw field-factory diagram, expanding the use of roll harvesting technology. Organizing production on the basis of self-financing, team and family contracts or a lease agreement ensures the best results from the use of intensive technology for cultivating fiber flax.

Place in crop rotation. Fiber flax should not be returned to its original place earlier than after 7-8 years.

On cultivated fields, when applying organic-mineral fertilizers and using herbicides, fiber flax produces high yields after fertilized winter crops, grain legumes, potatoes, sugar beets, clover layer or a mixture of clover with timothy, layer turnover and other predecessors. In conditions of increased agricultural culture and high soil fertility, perennial grasses as predecessors of flax are inferior to other predecessors. After rye, potatoes and peas, flax stems are more even, do not lie down, and are suitable for mechanized harvesting.

In Western Europe, on cultivated and well-fertilized soils, they avoid sowing flax directly over a layer of clover. In the Netherlands, the best predecessors of flax are considered to be wheat, barley, rye, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, etc. In Belgium, it is recommended to sow flax after grains, beets or chicory. In these countries, they avoid placing flax over clover due to excess nitrogen nutrition (the result is coarse branching straw, flax lodging).

Flax does not deplete the soil too much; after it, winter wheat and rye, spring wheat and other spring grains, buckwheat, potatoes and beets can be placed in the crop rotation.

Soil cultivation. Early autumn plowing of plowed land and a layer of perennial grasses helps to increase the yield and quality of fiber flax. The main tillage for flax is carried out in two versions: traditional and semi-steam. The first option includes stubble peeling and fall plowing, the second option includes fall plowing and several continuous cultivations of the field with a cultivator.

Peeling is carried out immediately after harvesting the predecessor; it stimulates the germination of weed seeds, which are destroyed by subsequent plowing. In fields infested primarily with annual weeds, hulling is usually carried out with LDG-10 disc hullers to a depth of 6-8 cm. In fields infested with root shoot weeds, hulling is carried out to a depth of 12-14 cm on light soils and 10-12 cm on heavy soils.

At the same time, in fields clogged only with root shoot weeds, a PPL-10-25 plow-harrower is used, and in fields clogged with wheatgrass, heavy disc harrows BDT-3.0 or BDT-7.0 in two tracks are used. When placing flax after perennial grasses, the layer is disced with a heavy disc harrow BDT-3.0 and plowed with plows with skimmers.

When preparing the soil using the semi-fallow type (with early harvesting of the predecessor), soil cultivation begins with plowing with plows with skimmers to the depth of the arable layer. In dry weather, the plow works in conjunction with a ring-spur roller, and in wet weather, with heavy harrows. In the time remaining before frost, 2-3 cultivations are carried out to a depth of 10-14 cm in a diagonal direction relative to the direction of plowing. In this case, a KPS-4 cultivator with spring tines is used in a unit with harrows. The last cultivation is carried out 10-15 days before frost to a depth of 8-10 cm with a KPS-4 cultivator equipped with pointed shares and without harrows.

In fields heavily infested with wheatgrass, herbicides are additionally used in accordance with industry regulations, which are applied over the raised plowed land and covered with harrows or cultivators during the first semi-fallow treatment.

In spring, plow grass is harrowed on sandy loam and light loamy soils or cultivated on heavy loamy soils and soils with high moisture content to a depth of 8-10 cm.

Pre-sowing preparation of sandy loam soils is carried out using heavy toothed harrows working in a double-row coupling, and the field is cultivated in intersecting directions. On light and medium loams, the use of needle (BIG-ZA) and spring (BP-8) harrows is effective. On medium and heavy loams and clay soils, pre-sowing soil preparation is carried out with cultivators to a depth of 5-7 cm. The layer of perennial grasses plowed in the fall is cultivated in the spring with cultivators with pointed tines.

To level the field surface on the eve of sowing flax, the soil is rolled using smooth water-filled rollers and ZKVG-1.4; on heavy soils, a ring-spur roller ZKKSH-6 is used. Heavily moist, heavy soils should not be rolled. In such fields, the soil is leveled using the ShB-2.5 trail harrow coupling.

The use of combined units RVK-3.6 (ripper-leveler-roller) and VIP-5.6 (leveler-chopper-roller) for pre-sowing tillage in fields not clogged with wheatgrass allows for high-quality soil preparation for flax in one pass.

Fertilizer. Flax is quite demanding when it comes to fertilizer. When applying full mineral fertilizer, the yield of flax straw increases by 0.4-0.8 t/ha. The approximate average removal of basic nutrients by flax plants per 1 ton of straw with seeds is: N - 10-14 kg, P2O5 - 4.5-7.5, K2O - 11-17.5 kg. The increase in straw yield on soddy-podzolic soils is 5-7 kg per 1 kg of a.m. fertilizers

In the flax fertilization system, it is necessary to take into account the weak assimilation ability of its root system, high sensitivity to high concentrations of soil solution, as well as the relatively short growing season of this crop.

When applying manure (up to 30-40 t/ha) together with phosphate rock (0.4-0.6 t) and potassium chloride (0.15-0.2 t) under previous winter or row crops, flax yield increases by 25 -30% or more. Stubble-sown lupine, seradella, vetch, and rape can be used as green fertilizer.

It is better not to apply manure and compost directly under flax in order to avoid lodging of plants and unevenness of the stem, as well as a decrease in fiber yield due to the greater coarseness of the stems. On soils poor in organic matter, peat manure or manure-phosphorite compost can be used.

Phosphorus (P60-100) and potassium (K60-120) fertilizers should be applied before plowing. Nitrogen fertilizers (N30-45) are applied in the spring; when properly combined with phosphorus-potassium, they significantly increase the fiber yield and its quality.

When determining doses of mineral fertilizers, one should take into account the agrochemical indicators of the soil, the degree of its fertility, cultivation, planned harvest and other factors (Table 51).

According to VNIIL, on poorly cultivated soils, for 1 part of nitrogen in fertilizer for flax there should be 2 parts of phosphorus and potassium, on moderately cultivated soils - 3, and on highly cultivated soils - 4-6. Excess nitrogen can cause lodging and branching of flax, as well as a decrease in fiber yield. Nitrogen fertilizers are usually applied before sowing and in fertilizing in the form of ammonium nitrate, urea; Ammonium sulfate also has a good effect

On farms that have achieved a noticeable increase in soil fertility, nitrogen fertilizers are not applied directly to flax, but are limited to selective fertilizing as necessary.

Phosphorus fertilizers help accelerate the ripening of flax and improve the quality of the fiber. In this case, special attention should be paid to the forms of phosphorus fertilizers. Excess superphosphate increases soil acidity and can inhibit plants. The most suitable for flax, especially on acidic soils, are phosphate rock, double superphosphate, boron superphosphate and precipitate. Good results are also obtained when using superphosphate in a mixture with phosphate rock.

The application of potassium fertilizers (potassium chloride, potassium salt, potassium sulfate, potassium magnesium) increases the yield and quality of fiber, mitigates the negative effect of excess nitrogen nutrition, and increases the resistance of stems to lodging. It is effective to use complex fertilizers when fertilizing flax: ammophos, nitrophoska, nitroammophoska. It is not recommended to apply lime directly under flax to avoid reducing the yield and quality of the fiber.

VNIIL experiments have proven the significant effectiveness of boron fertilizers (0.4-0.7 kg of pure boron per 1 ha) applied for plowing or spring harrowing of plowed land. Boron promotes yield growth, weakens the negative effect of excess lime on flax, and reduces damage to plants by bacterial diseases. Boron fertilizers should be used on calcareous podzolic and marshy soils, as well as on newly developed lands.

Good results on flax crops are ensured by adding ammophos or granulated superphosphate to the rows when sowing (10-12 kg of N and P2O5 per 1 ha).

It is important to ensure uniform distribution of fertilizers in the soil so that there is no diversity of flax stems (uneven ripening, different heights and branching of plants).

Great importance is attached to feeding flax during the growing season. To do this, use ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate (20-30 kg N), superphosphate (30-40 kg P2O5), potassium chloride (30 kg K2O per 1 ha) or complex fertilizers. Fertilizing is carried out at three seedling heights of 6-8 cm (no later than 20 days after their appearance). Delay in fertilizing with nitrogen can lead to extended flowering and uneven ripening. Often flax is fed only with phosphorus fertilizers.

Currently, flax-growing farms apply 0.8-1 tons of mineral fertilizers per 1 hectare of fiber flax sowing. In flax crop rotations, VNIIL recommends applying organic fertilizers (manure and composts) in combination with mineral ones in two fields - fallow and potatoes, and mineral fertilizers - annually for all crops.

Sowing. For sowing, you should use seeds of the best zoned varieties that meet the requirements of the sowing standard of the first and second classes (purity 99-98%, germination capacity 95-90%, humidity 12%). It is prohibited to sow seeds containing dodder and other harmful weeds. Seeds should be full-bodied, leveled, shiny and greasy to the touch, healthy, with high germination energy. To increase germination energy and field germination, flax seeds are subjected to air-thermal heating (for 5-7 days) in open areas or in well-ventilated areas (for 8-10 days) 10-15 days before sowing.

The practice of advanced collective farms has established the great advantage of early sowing of flax in soil heated at a depth of 10 cm to 7-8 ° C. With early sowing, plants use soil moisture more fully, are less affected by fungal diseases and flea beetles, and the fiber obtained is of better quality. According to TSHA experiments, when flax was sown on May 13, the trust yield was 20% higher than when sowed on June 9. With early sowing, only 2.3% of seedlings were damaged by flea beetles, and with late sowing - 34.6%. However, you should avoid sowing too early, when frosts are still possible, as well as sowing seeds in very damp, poorly prepared soil.

In order to evenly distribute fiber flax seeds, they are sown with narrow-row flax seeders (SZL-3.6) with row spacing of 7.5 cm. The sowing depth of flax seeds is 1.5-3 cm, the sowing rate is 20-25 million viable seeds (100- 120 kg) per 1 ha. For varieties prone to lodging, the seeding rate is slightly reduced. For seed purposes, fiber flax is sown in a wide row (45 cm) or strip method (45x7.5x7.5 cm) at a reduced rate.

Crop care. Under favorable conditions, flax seedlings appear 5 days after sowing. When it rains, a crust may form, delaying the emergence of seedlings. It is destroyed with a light sowing, rotary or mesh harrow, or a ring-spur roller.

It is very important to protect fiber flax from weeds, which reduce its yield and fiber quality. The most common weeds of flax crops include spring weeds - wild radish, white pigweed, commonweed, bindweed, flax chaff, flaxseed, and tenacious bedstraw. There are also wintering weeds - blue cornflower, odorless chamomile, field grass. The most common perennial weeds: creeping wheatgrass, pink sow thistle, yellow sow thistle.

The main weed control measures are agrotechnical: choosing a good predecessor, semi-steam tillage, good seed cleaning using a SOM-ZOO seed cleaning machine and an EMS-1A electromagnetic machine.

Pests cause great harm to flax. These are the flax flea beetle, flax tripe, flax codling moth, and gamma cutworm. The following diseases of fiber flax are common: rust, fusarium blight, polysporium blight, bacteriosis, anthracnose, etc. They reduce plant productivity and fiber quality. It is important to sow resistant varieties, treat seeds, and strictly adhere to agrotechnical requirements: crop rotation, early sowing, destruction of flax residues on the field, etc.

Cleaning. The overall result in flax growing depends on high-quality and timely cleaning.

The following phases of flax ripeness are distinguished.

Green ripeness (green flax). The stems and bolls of flax are green, and the leaves of the lower third of the stem begin to turn yellow. The seeds in the boxes are soft, in a state of milky ripeness. The fiber bundles have formed, but the fibers are not yet fully formed.

When harvesting flax in the green ripeness phase, a reduced yield of not very strong, but thin, shiny fiber is obtained, suitable for thin products (lace, cambric).

Early yellow ripeness. Flax crops are light yellow in color. The leaves of the lower third of the stems turn brown and crumble, and the rest become yellow, wither, and only in the upper part of the stem do they still remain greenish. The capsules also have greenish veins. The seeds in them are in the waxy ripeness phase. The fiber has formed, but has not yet become coarse; the fibers are sufficiently completed. When harvested in this phase, the fiber is soft, silky and quite strong. The seeds, although not fully ripe, are quite suitable not only for technical purposes, but also for sowing.

Yellow ripeness. Occurs 5-7 days after early yellow ripeness. Crops turn yellow. The leaves of the lower half of the stems turn brown and crumble, and in the upper half they are yellow and withered. The bolls become yellow and partially turn brown. The seeds in them harden and have a normal color for the variety. The fiber in the lower part of the stems begins to become coarser (woody).

Full ripeness. Stems and boxes turn brown. Most of the leaves have already fallen. The seeds in the boxes are fully ripe, hardened and make noise when shaken. The fiber is already overripe, especially in the lower part of the stem, becomes somewhat lignified, loses elasticity and becomes hard and dry.

When grown for fiber, fiber flax is usually harvested in the early yellow ripeness phase, and in the seed areas - in the yellow ripeness phase.

Pre-harvest desiccation of fiber flax crops has become widespread. Drying flax plants with desiccants while they are still growing eliminates processes such as field drying and ripening of flax in sheaves (when using seeds for sowing).

Harvesting fiber flax is a complex and labor-intensive process. Depending on the conditions, flax is harvested using a combine, split or sheaf method.

The combine harvesting method has become the main one; it is carried out by flax harvesters LK-4A with a spreading device and LKV-4A with a sheaf-tying machine. Both combines are equipped with a stripping device. Flax harvesters are aggregated with the MTZ tractor. The combine harvesting method includes the following technological operations: pulling plants, stripping seed pods, binding straw into sheaves or spreading it with a ribbon on flax, collecting heaps (pods, seeds, impurities) in tractor trailers. Fiber products are sold in the form of straw or trust. When selling straw, harvesting can be done in two ways.

According to the first option, flax is pulled with a combine with a knitting machine. The combed straw, tied into sheaves, is placed in the headstocks for natural drying and after 6-10 days they are taken to the flax mill. To select and load sheaves, the PPS-3 sheaf pick-up loader is used.

According to the second option, the flax is pulled with a combine with a spreading device. The straw, spread out with a ribbon, after 4-6 days of drying, is lifted and knitted into sheaves using a PTN-1 pick-up with a knitting machine or pressed into rolls using a converted roll baler PRP-1.6. Rolls are loaded into vehicles using a PF-0.5 front loader with a flax attachment.

To prepare the trusts, the flax, pulled out and spread in ribbons, is left to age. To improve aging conditions and improve its quality, trusts carry out two additional methods to the traditional technology. Firstly, in the spring, simultaneously with sowing flax, some perennial winter-type cereal grass (meadow fescue, perennial ryegrass) or creeping clover is sown. Flax is spread on the grass cover. Secondly, in order to ensure uniform aging in the tape, achieve an even color of the stems, as well as speed up aging and prevent the tape from becoming overgrown with grass, it is wrapped 3-4 and 10-20 days after spreading and before lifting the finished cane. This operation is performed with an OSN-1 wrapper, which is mounted on a T-25A tractor.

Dry trust (humidity no more than 20%) is lifted and knitted into sheaves using a PTN-1 trust picker or formed into rolls using a PRP-1.6 baler.

In inclement weather, with high humidity, trusts use the PNP-3 pick-up portion former to prevent it from overstaying. The trusta collected in portions is knitted by hand into sheaves, which are placed in cones or tents for natural drying.

There are high demands on the quality of work of combine harvesters: the purity of pulling must be no lower than 99%, the purity of tow - no less than 98, seed loss - no more than 4%. The combines must be sealed.

The flax heap obtained after stripping the heads has a complex fractional composition, its humidity at the beginning of harvesting is 35-60%. To avoid self-heating and spoilage of seeds, flax heaps received from the field are immediately dried with heated or atmospheric air at special drying points. The dry heap is processed on a heap separating machine, thresher-winnower MV-2.5A, and then goes to seed cleaning machines: SM-4, OS-4.5A, flax cleaning hump OSG-0.2A, magnetic seed cleaning machine EMS-1A or SMShch-0.4, "Petkus-Giant" K-531/1. During long-term storage, seed moisture should not exceed 8-12%.

Primary processing of flax fiber. The task of primary processing of flax straw is the most complete (without loss) fiber extraction without deteriorating its quality. Straw is sorted by length, thickness, color and other characteristics (2-3 grades). Plants affected by rust, fusarium and other diseases are removed and processed separately from healthy ones. On farms, dew or water soaks of flax are used to extract fiber from the stems, and in factories, heat soaks are used, as well as chemical treatment in alkaline solutions.

Flax trust(soaked flax straw), depending on the fiber content in it, its color, strength and other quality indicators, is divided into numbers: 4; 3.5; 2.5; 2; 1.75;1.5; 1.25; 1.0; 0.75 and 0.5. The flax trust number is determined upon delivery organoleptically, comparing the selected sheaves with the standards. When delivered, the flax trust must be uniform in length, with a moisture content of no more than 20%, a contamination level of no more than 5 and a fiber content in the trust of at least 11%.

Depending on the quality, flax straw is divided into the following numbers: 5; 4.5; 3.5; 3; 2.5; 2; 1.75; 1.5; 1.25; 1.0; 0.75 and 0.5. Flax mills do not accept flax straw of the last two numbers (0.75 and 0.5).

To extract pure fiber from the trusta, the brome (wood from the stems) must be removed. For this purpose, roller grinders are used. The resulting raw fiber is separated from the remnants of the fire using scutching machines. A good fiber should be clean from the fire, tensile strength, long, thin, soft, greasy to the touch, heavy and uniform in color (light silver, white).

The yield of pure fiber is usually at least 15% of the straw mass or at least 20% of the trust mass. Long flax fiber according to GOST 10330-76, depending on quality, is divided into grades designated by numbers: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32. Short fiber is divided into numbers: 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2. Flax fiber with a moisture content of 16% or higher, which has foreign impurities and a putrid odor, is not accepted.

Features of oilseed flax agricultural technology . Curly flax seeds from the high mountainous regions of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia have the highest oil content (up to 46-48%). Curly flax (horn flax) has a limited distribution. Most often, flax is used to obtain seeds for oil - mezheumok.

Curly flax and mezeumok are less demanding on moisture and soil fertility than long-lasting flax. They are cultivated in arid steppe regions, as well as in foothill and mountainous areas with sufficient moisture. The best soils for oilseed flax are black soils that are free from weeds. It also works well on chestnut soils. Soils prone to waterlogging, heavy, clayey, and solonetzic are unsuitable for its cultivation.

The best place for sowing oil flax is deposits and a layer of perennial grasses. Good predecessors are winter grains, grain legumes, melons, corn and other row crops. Autumn plowing should be carried out as early as possible with preliminary stubble peeling (15-20 days before plowing). Spring tillage should be aimed at preserving moisture, loosening the seed layer and leveling the soil.

Phosphorus and potassium fertilizers should be applied during fall plowing in doses taken for grain crops. A good result is obtained by adding granulated superphosphate to the rows when sowing flax (seed yield increases by 0.3 t/ha).

Oilseed flax is sown with conventional grain seeders simultaneously with early grain grains. In the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, stubble crops of flax are also quite successful, yielding 0.6-0.8 t/ha of seeds or more. The method of sowing oilseed flax is narrow-row or ordinary row. The seed sowing rate is 40-60 kg/ha. In very arid conditions (Kazakhstan), wide-row crops are sometimes used, and the seeding rate is reduced to 30-20 kg/ha. When using flax on both sides (for fiber and seeds), the seeding rate is increased by 10-15 kg. The seed sowing depth is 4-5 cm.

In areas where flax stems are not used for fiber, harvesting is carried out at the beginning of full ripeness using combines at a low cut. When using oil flax on both sides, it is picked in the yellow ripeness phase, followed by ripening of the seeds in sheaves and threshing them on special flax threshing machines. Seeds cleaned on sorters and flax triers are stored at a moisture content of no more than 11%.

Rye is a genus of annual or perennial herbaceous plants of the flowering department, class Monocots, order Poaceae, family Poaceae (Secale).

You can distinguish these grain crops from each other already at the stage of small sprouts: if you pull out a small rye plant and look at its roots, you will find a root divided into four root parts, but in wheat the root is divided into three primary roots.
The color of the leaves of rye and wheat also differs - rye usually has leaves of a bluish-blue color, while those of wheat are bright green, however, this feature is observed only before the ears ripen.
Ears of rye and wheat also have differences in structure: in rye the inflorescence is represented by a two-row spike, while the inflorescence of wheat is a complex spike.
Wheat flowers have the ability to self-pollinate; rye flowers are pollinated by the wind.
Wheat was cultivated by humans much earlier than rye.
If we consider these cereals by species diversity, then wheat has the largest number of species and varietals among the cereals known today. Rye cannot boast of so many varieties.
In addition to standard carbohydrates, proteins and various dietary fibers, which are also present in wheat grain, rye grain also contains a set of vitamins PP, E, B. That is why rye bread is considered a very healthy dietary product.
Rye is less picky about the quality of the soil, so its fibrous roots penetrate 2 meters deep, receiving the substances necessary for growth. This feature makes it possible to sow rye on sandy, “acidic” or infertile soils, obtaining consistently high yields. Wheat is more “capricious” and demanding on soil quality.
Rye crops are resistant to frost and severe droughts, while wheat often freezes at low temperatures and loves moderate moisture.

A hybrid of wheat and rye is called triticale:

Hybrid of wheat and rye (triticale)

Cereals: rye, wheat, barley, oats, triticale (hybrid of wheat and rye)

Rye and barley: differences

A barley sprout has 5-8 primary roots, while rye has 4.
The leaf of cereals at its base has double-sided horns or, as they are otherwise called, ears. In rye they are short and lack cilia. Barley has very large ears, crescent-shaped.
The rye ear has two flowers on each ledge of the rod; three graceful flowers “sit” on the rod ledges of barley.
The glumes of rye are narrow, with a pronounced single nerve-groove. Barley scales are slightly wider, linear, without a visible groove.

Types of rye, names and photographs

Modern classification identifies 9 types of rye:

Mountain rye ( Secale montanum)
Wild (forest) rye ( Secale sylvestre)
Rye Vavilov ( Secale vavilovii)
Rye Derzhavin ( Secale derzhavinii)
Anatolian rye ( Secale anatolicum)
African rye ( Secale africanum)
Rye (cultivated) ( Secale cereale)
Rye Secale ciliatiglume
Weedy field rye ( Secale segetale)

A more detailed description of the varieties of rye:

Mountain rye ( Secale montanum)

perennial plant 80-120 cm high. The species of rye, listed in the Red Book, is distributed in small populations in Abkhazia, the Caucasus and the Krasnodar Territory, as well as in southern Europe and the countries of South-West and Central Asia.

Wild (forest) rye ( Secale sylvestre)

an annual cereal growing in European countries, Asia Minor and Central Asia, the Caucasus and western Siberia.

Rye Vavilov ( Secale vavilovii)

an annual plant growing in Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus.

Rye Derzhavin ( Secale derzhavinii)

a perennial forage crop created by Professor Derzhavin by crossing seed and mountain rye.

Anatolian rye ( Secale anatolicum)

perennial forage grass, common in the foothill regions of Transcaucasia, the Balkans, Greece, Bulgaria, Iraq, Iran and the central part of Turkey (Anatolia). Used for grazing livestock and making hay.

African rye ( Secale africanum)

a type of rye native to the southern African continent.

Rye or cultural ( Secale cereale)

annual or biennial cereal, cultivated in winter or spring. A widespread crop with high food, agricultural and feed purposes, uniting about 40 varieties. Cultivated in temperate latitudes in Russia, Germany, Poland, Scandinavian countries, Belarus, Ukraine, Canada, America and China.

Rye Secale ciliatiglume

a type of rye that grows in Turkey, Iraq, Iran.

Weedy field rye (Secale segetale)

this species grows in the countries of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, and the Caucasus.

Rye: benefits, medicinal properties, vitamins and minerals

Rye is one of the most useful cereal plants, a unique dietary product, a storehouse of vitamins and minerals that are essential for the human body. The composition of rye grains includes:

B vitamins involved in basic metabolic processes, preventing aging, supporting immunity;
vitamins A and PP, which protect the body from aging and maintain the integrity of the cell structure;
folic acid, which has a general strengthening effect on the body and supports the functioning of the heart and blood vessels;
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus;
lysine and threonine, amino acids important for tissue growth and repair;
Sprouted rye grains contain zinc, selenium, iron and manganese.

The use of rye products, decoctions and preparations containing rye can successfully combat many dangerous diseases:

oncological diseases;
arthritis, arthrosis and inflammation of bone tissue;
cardiovascular diseases;
diseases of the liver, gall bladder, kidneys and genitourinary system;
diseases of the pancreas and thyroid gland, including diabetes;
allergies, bronchial asthma;
skin diseases.

The most valuable rye flour is wallpaper (unrefined, with the shell of the grain), it retains all the beneficial properties of whole grain.

Contraindications for rye

Rye contains gluten protein, which is contraindicated for people with gluten intolerance.
Rye is also contraindicated for people with gastritis with high acidity and stomach and intestinal ulcers.

Use of rye and beneficial properties

Rye is a very valuable and healthy cereal that is widely used in cooking and medicine. Various and very healthy porridges are cooked from rye (whole) grains, dietary bread is baked from rye flour, and they also create the main component for the traditional and delicious Russian drink - kvass. In Rus', slightly sour and original-tasting rye flour was used to make pancakes, holiday pies or gingerbread cookies.

In some areas, “green porridge” is still prepared from young rye grains, which is considered an indispensable dish on the newlyweds’ table and symbolizes happiness and prosperity.

In cities in Canada and in some states of America, rich whiskey is made from rye.

Rye straw is used as livestock feed or as bedding for animals, it is used to mulch the soil under strawberries and is used in growing mushrooms.

Rye straw is needed as a raw material for making adobe bricks. Only with rye straw can you get amazingly tasty soaked apples.

In the field of medicine, infusions and decoctions are prepared from healthy cereals, and extracts from rye grain are produced. This cereal has a general strengthening, tonic effect on the body, stabilizes the functions of the gastrointestinal tract, softens cough, alleviates rheumatoid conditions, treats abscesses and relieves tumors.

Rye bran is useful in the treatment of high blood pressure, anemia, and diseases of the cardiovascular system.

Sprouted rye - benefits and vitamins

Rye sprouts are a plant product with amazing properties that competently and very quickly compensate for the lack of minerals and vitamins in the human body. These juicy, slightly sour sprouts will be an excellent addition to salads, cereals or vegetable vinaigrettes. Sprouted rye perfectly stimulates the intestines, normalizing its disturbed microflora and relieving constipation, cleanses the body of accumulated toxins and excess cholesterol.

Rye sprouts

Sprouted rye grains are indicated for gastroenterological problems; they normalize the functions of the hematopoietic and nervous systems, help strengthen the immune system and increase metabolism. Sprouted rye is recommended for use by patients with diabetes, pregnant women, allergy sufferers, the elderly and people suffering from high obesity. Sprouted rye has a beneficial effect on the organs of vision, skin, hair and teeth. The only contraindication for eating rye sprouts is gluten intolerance.

How to germinate rye at home?

To germinate rye, you should choose grains of which you are absolutely sure of their quality. Healthy rye grains, not treated with chemicals and thoroughly washed, must be spread in a thin layer (no more than 1 cm) on a cotton cloth laid in a container, covered with a piece of the same cloth on top. Then the prepared grain is poured with water at room temperature so that it covers the grains by 1 cm. The plate can be placed in a dark place at a temperature no higher than 22-24 degrees.

Within 1-2 days, tender rye seedlings 1-2 mm long will hatch, which after washing with cold water can be eaten.

Growing winter and spring rye: sowing, fertilizers, care

To grow rye as a crop, an elevated, open area is chosen; maximum lighting is necessary for the grains to fully ripen.

For winter and spring rye, it is necessary to apply organic fertilizers (manure, compost) and mineral fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium).

Sowing winter rye carried out one and a half months before the onset of persistent cold weather. To do this, sorted seeds with high levels of purity and germination are selected and treated to avoid the occurrence of diseases. Seeds are planted in pre-designated rows 15 cm apart to a depth of 5-7 cm.

Sowing spring rye carried out in the spring, at the earliest possible time, in dug up and fertilized soil. Seeds germinate at low temperatures above zero, and seedlings are not afraid of frost.

Rye is an excellent green manure

Rye is considered one of the most valuable green manures after mustard. The aggressive plant does not tolerate competitors and, thanks to its rapid growth, effectively suppresses annual and perennial weeds, and also prevents the development of pathogenic microorganisms. Rye has an excellent structuring effect on heavy, clayey soils, loosening the soil with deep, powerful roots and enriching the soil with nitrogen.

When and how to sow rye as green manure?

As a green manure, rye is sown in early September, scattering the seeds evenly over the entire surface of the plot, or sown in rows, every 15 cm. The sowing rate is 2 kg per 1 sq.m. Before the onset of frost, rye seedlings grow up to 20-25 cm. In winter, the grain retains snow and prevents the soil from freezing to a greater depth. In spring, seedlings quickly gain green mass. The beginning of heading is the most favorable time for incorporating rye into the soil, when the plant contains the maximum amount of nutrients. Then the rye is crushed and buried to a depth of no more than 4-5 cm, otherwise the green mass may turn sour. After 2 weeks, the main crop can be planted on weed-free, loose, fertile soil. The only drawback of such agricultural technology is that rye significantly dries out the soil, so plants planted after it require regular watering.

A familiar and simple cereal, however, can be considered a rather interesting plant. At the end of the last century, Luxembourg occupied a leading position in the world in the incidence of bowel cancer. After adding diseased bran and rye bread to the diet, the city quickly found itself at the end of this terrible list.
In Rus', ears of rye tied into a bundle drove away evil forces from newborns and protected them from the “black eye” by placing oven-dried cereal under a mattress in a cradle.
Rye flour is an excellent remedy for boils and abscesses: a cake of it is applied to the sore spot, and within a day or two relief comes.

Moderate temperatures of spring and summer are favorable for flax growth. Flax germinates well and grows at a temperature not exceeding 16-17°C. Seeds are able to germinate at 2-5°C. High temperatures (above 18-22 0) destroy flax, especially during the budding period, when it grows vigorously. The sum of active temperatures is 1000-1300°C. the growing season ranges from 70-100 days.

A moisture-loving, long-day plant. When seeds swell in the soil, they absorb at least 100% of water relative to their own weight. Demanding on moisture during the period of budding - flowering. Frequent rains after flowering are unfavorable: flax can lie down and be affected by fungal diseases. During the ripening period, dry, warm and sunny weather is favorable.

On soils with excess lime content, the fiber is coarse and brittle. On poor soils, fiber flax plants grow short, and on rich soils they lie down.

The All-Russian Flax Research Institute has developed an intensive technology for cultivating fiber flax. Its successful and complete application is designed to produce 0.55-0.8 t/ha of flax fiber and 0.45-0.5 t/ha of seeds.

Place in crop rotation

It should not be returned to its original place earlier than after 7-8 years. On cultivated fields and the use of herbicides, fiber flax produces high yields after fertilized winter crops, grain legumes, potatoes, and clover. After rye, potatoes and peas, flax stems are more aligned, do not lie down, and are suitable for mechanized harvesting. After harvesting grain crops, it is advisable to sow the field under flax with intermediate crops from the cruciferous family (rapeseed, rapeseed, oilseed radish), using them for feed or green manure.

Flax does not greatly deplete the soil, after which winter wheat and rye, spring wheat, potatoes, and buckwheat can be placed in crop rotation.

Tillage

Early autumn plowing of plowed land and a layer of perennial grasses helps to increase yield and fiber quality. The main tillage for flax is carried out in two versions: traditional and semi-steam. The first option includes stubble peeling and fall plowing, the second option includes fall plowing and several continuous cultivations of the field with a cultivator.

Fertilizer

Flax is quite demanding when it comes to fertilizer. When applying full mineral fertilizer, the yield of flax straw increases by 0.4-0.8 t/ha. The increase in straw yield on sod-podzolic soils is 5-7 kg per 1 kg of a.i. fertilizers

When applying manure (up to 30-40 t/ha) together with phosphorus flour (0.4-0.6 t) and potassium chloride (0.15-0.2 t) under previous winter or row crops, flax yield increases by 25 -30% or more.

Phosphorus (P 60-100) and potassium (K 60-120) fertilizers should be applied before plowing. Nitrogen fertilizers (N 30-45) are applied in the spring before sowing and in fertilizing in the form of ammonium nitrate and urea.

Phosphorus fertilizers help accelerate the ripening of flax and improve the quality of the fiber. The most suitable for flax are phosphate rock and double superphosphate.

The application of potassium fertilizers (potassium chloride, potassium salt, potassium sulfate) increases the yield and quality of fiber.

It is effective to use complex fertilizers when fertilizing flax: ammophos, nitrophoska, nitroammophoska.

Ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate (20-30 kg N), superphosphate (30-40 kg P 2 O 5), potassium chloride (30 kg K 2 O per 1 ha) are used for fertilizing. Feeding is carried out when the height of the seedlings is 6-8 cm (no later than 20 days after their appearance).

Sowing. For sowing, seeds of the best zoned honeycombs should be used. Before sowing, flax seeds are treated using TMTD, granosan. Simultaneously with dressing, flax seeds can be treated with microfertilizers - boric acid, sulfate, copper sulfate, zinc sulfate.

The great advantage of early sowing of flax in soil heated at a depth of 10 cm to 7-8°C has been established. With early sowing, plants use soil moisture more fully and are less affected by fungal diseases.

Flax is sown with narrow-row flax seeders (SZL-3.6) with row spacing of 7.5 cm. The sowing depth of flax seeds is 1.5-3 cm, the seeding rate is 20-25 million viable seeds (100-120 kg) per 1 ha. For seed purposes, fiber flax is sown in a wide row (45 cm) method at a reduced rate.

Crop care

It is important to protect fiber flax from weeds. The most common include spring crops - wild radish, white pigweed, bindweed, flax chaff, flax hawthorn; wintering - blue cornflower, field grass, yellow sow thistle.

The main control measures are agrotechnical, using the herbicide 2M-4X sodium salt - 0.9-1.4 kg/ha. Crops are treated in the “herringbone” phase when the plant height is from 5 to 15 cm, when the leaves are covered with a waxy coating and large drops of the herbicide solution easily roll off them. Creeping wheatgrass is destroyed in the fall when cultivating the soil using sodium trichloroacetate.

Chemical weeding of flax can be combined with foliar fertilizing with nitrogen fertilizers.

Pests cause great harm to flax. This is a flax flea beetle, a flax moth. The following diseases of fiber flax are common: rust, fusarium blight, bacteriosis, anthracnose. It is important to sow resistant varieties, treat seeds, and strictly adhere to agrotechnical requirements: crop rotation, early sowing.

Cleaning

The following phases of flax ripeness are distinguished.

Green ripeness

The stems and bolls of flax are green, and the leaves of the lower third of the stem begin to turn yellow. The seeds in the boxes are soft, in a state of milky ripeness. The fiber bundles have formed, but the fibers are not yet sufficiently formed. When harvesting flax in green ripeness, a reduced yield of not very strong, but thin, shiny fiber is obtained, suitable for delicate products (lace, cambric).

Early yellow ripeness

Flax crops are light yellow in color. The leaves of the lower third of the stems turn brown and remain, while the rest turn yellow and wither. Boxes with greenish veins. The seeds in them are in the waxy ripeness phase. The fiber has formed, but has not yet become coarse; the fibers are sufficiently completed. When harvested in this phase, the fiber becomes soft and silky. The seeds, although not fully ripe, are quite suitable not only for technical purposes, but also for sowing.

Yellow ripeness

Occurs 5-7 days after early yellow ripeness. Crops turn yellow. The leaves of the lower half of the stems turn brown and crumble, and in the upper half they are yellow and withered. The bolls become yellow and partially turn brown. The seeds in them harden and have a normal color for the variety. The fiber at the bottom of the stems begins to coarse.

Full ripeness

Stems and boxes turn brown. Most of the leaves have already fallen. The seeds in the boxes are fully ripe, hardened and make noise when shaken. The fiber loses its elasticity and becomes hard and dry.

Harvesting fiber flax is a complex and labor-intensive process. Depending on the conditions, flax is harvested using a combine, split or sheaf method.

The combine harvesting method has become the main one: it is carried out by flax harvesters LK-4A with a spreading device and LKV-4A with a sheaf-tying machine. The combine harvesting method includes the following technological operations: pulling plants, stripping seed pods. Tying straw into sheaves or spreading it with a ribbon on flax, collecting heaps (bolls, seeds, impurities). Fiber products are sold in the form of straw or trust.

When selling straw, harvesting can be done in two ways:

1. flax is pulled by a combine with a knitting machine. The combed straw, tied into sheaves, is placed in the headstocks for natural drying and after 6-10 days they are taken to the flax mill.

2. Flax is pulled by a combine with a spreading device. After drying for 4-6 days, the straw, spread out with a ribbon, is lifted and knitted into sheaves or pressed into rolls.

To prepare the trusts, the flax, pulled out and spread in ribbons, is left to age. To improve the trust's aging conditions and improve its quality, two additional techniques are carried out:

1. In the spring, simultaneously with sowing flax, perennial winter grass (meadow fescue, perennial ryegrass) or creeping clover is sown.

2. to ensure uniform aging in the tape, it is necessary to achieve an even color of the stems, in order to speed up aging and prevent the tape from becoming overgrown with grass, it is wrapped 3-4 and 10-12 days after growing.

Dry trust (humidity no more than 20%) is lifted and knitted into sheaves with a pick-up for natural drying.

In the southern regions of the country, where wheat for a long time - the main, leading crop; with proper agricultural technology, even higher yields are obtained. For example, the new winter wheat variety Bezostaya-4 gave an average yield of 40 centners per hectare on collective farm fields. And at the state farm named after. Kalinin, Korenevsky district, Krasnodar region, the same variety of winter wheat yielded 48.6 centners per hectare. On one of the fields of the state farm, with an area of 149 hectares, the harvest was even 54.5 centners per hectare. The yield of another new variety - Bezostaya-41 - in 1959 reached 50-60 centners per hectare in variety testing areas. In Siberia and Kazakhstan, on newly developed virgin and fallow lands, the sown area is mainly occupied by spring wheat, the yield of which in 1958 on a number of state farms exceeded 40 centners per hectare.

After wheat, the largest sown area in the USSR is occupied by rye. And throughout the world, its cultivated area is in fourth place - after wheat, rice and corn. To soil and climatic conditions rye less demanding than wheat. It also grows on sandy soils, and produces high yields on sandy soils. In addition, it is more frost-resistant: its crops have crossed the Arctic Circle and now reach 69° N. w. Compared to the pre-revolutionary period, wheat crops in the USSR decreased due to an increase in wheat crops. But in many parts of the country it remains the main food crop.

Among the rye varieties there are both winter and spring varieties. The main area under rye crops in the USSR is occupied by winter varieties, as they are more productive. The best precursor for winter rye is fertilized fallow.

In many regions of the European part of the USSR, winter rye yields in height and stability significantly exceed spring grain yields. For example, the leading collective farms of the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, Moscow, Kursk and other regions receive rye yields of 40 and 50 centners per hectare.

Black bread is made from rye grain. Rye straw is used in agriculture: it is used as bedding for livestock, and mats for greenhouses are knitted from it. Rye straw is also used in industry as a raw material for the production of paper and cardboard.

Winter rye is sometimes grown for spring feeding of productive cattle, since rye produces an abundance of high-quality green fodder earlier than other plants.

Oats grown mainly for livestock feed. But many food products are also produced from it: cereals, oatmeal, oatmeal (rolled oats).

Oat grains are very nutritious. The grain of filmy varieties contains up to 18% protein, about 6% fat and up to 40% starch. Hull oat grain contains up to 23% protein. Oatmeal is well absorbed by the animal's body and is especially useful for young animals. Oatmeal is a dietary product for children. Oat straw and chaff are used as livestock feed. Oat straw is more nutritious than other grain straws.

Most known species of oats grow among wild flora. The cultivated type of oats - the so-called seed oats - is divided into filmy varieties and naked varieties. There are a lot of varieties of oats, and each of them is adapted to certain soil and climatic conditions.

In the USSR, mainly filmy varieties are cultivated. They were bred by Soviet breeders by selecting from ancient local varieties.

Oats produce the highest yields in mild climates and sufficient precipitation. It is less demanding on soil than other grains; Therefore, as a rule, any crop rotation ends with sowing oats. Compared to other grains, oats are the least valuable crop. Therefore, the expansion of plantings of other grains, such as corn, should come primarily through a reduction in plantings of oats.

Occupies a significantly smaller cultivated area than wheat, rye or oats in the Soviet Union barley. It is used mainly for livestock feed, in the brewing industry and for making barley coffee. But there are countries, for example Tibet, where barley is the main grain plant, since other grains do not ripen there: of all grains, barley is the fastest ripening plant.

Cereals, the grain of which is used not for flour or for baking bread, but for making porridge, are called cereals. Millet is the most important cereal grain in the Soviet Union. Cultivated millet is divided according to the shape of the panicle into three main groups: spreading - with long branches and a loose panicle structure, drooping - with long branches and tightly adjacent to each other, and compact - with short branches, very tightly adjacent to each other. Millet grains are covered with films and after they are dehulled (cleaned), food millet is obtained.

Among all cereals, millet is the most drought-resistant crop. Therefore, in the USSR it is most often sown in the southeastern regions of the country. With good care, millet yields reach 60 centners per hectare or more.

Millet produces the highest yields when sown over a layer of virgin soil or sown perennial grasses. Therefore, in farming practice, millet is considered a layer crop. Millet can also be cultivated on soft soils, but they must be free of weeds. Millet seedlings develop very slowly and therefore become heavily clogged with weeds on clogged soils. In addition to virgin soil and sown perennial grasses, row crops are a good predecessor for millet: potatoes and sugar beets. In turn, millet is considered a good predecessor for spring wheat, barley and oats. Millet is very responsive to phosphorus fertilizers.

The best sowing method is wide-row, since millet is a light-loving plant. The seed sowing rate for conventional row sowing is 20-25 kg per hectare, and for wide-row sowing it is half as much; the adaptability of the variety to soil and climatic conditions is also of great importance. Therefore, sowing with varietal and zoned seeds is a mandatory agrotechnical measure. In the USSR, millet sown areas are concentrated in the Kazakh SSR, the Volga region and the Central Black Earth zone. Millet ripens unevenly and falls off easily. Controlling grain losses during millet harvesting is of paramount importance.

For half the world's population, the main food is rice. Rice has the same importance as bread in Japan, China, India, Indonesia, Burma, and Vietnam. It began to be cultivated a very long time ago. In Southeast Asia, rice was known as a cultivated plant already 4-5 thousand years ago. Rice is grown in fields that are flooded with water. But rice is not a swamp plant, but a mountain plant. Its wild species grow, although in a humid climate, but on soil that is not flooded with water. In India, Burma and Vietnam, it was originally cultivated on gentle mountain slopes. Monsoons brought heavy rainfall to these mountains. But since the monsoons are a seasonal phenomenon, with such farming it was possible to harvest only one crop per year. To prevent rainfall from sweeping away the earth from the mountain slopes, stone and earthen ramparts began to be erected around the rice crops. This is how terraces were formed, and the water of monsoon showers lingered on them. For cultivated rice, such abundant moisture turned out to be beneficial. It began to produce large harvests, two or three harvests a year. In terms of productivity, irrigated rice surpasses even millet. Gradually, rice culture descended from the mountains into the valleys, where high-water rivers were used to irrigate crops. Where there are no large rivers, for example on the island of Java, rice is still cultivated on mountain terraces.

With constant flooding of rice fields, the beneficial activity of microorganisms in the soil fades. Therefore, it is better to use shortened flooding: after sowing, 3-4 waterings are carried out, and when the rice reaches waxy ripeness, the water is discharged from the field.

There are now more than 10 thousand varieties of cultivated rice. Soviet breeders developed varieties suitable for our climate. In our country, rice is cultivated in Central Asia, in the Krasnodar Territory, in the south of Ukraine and in the Moldavian SSR. Rice grain is high in nutrients. About 75% of it consists of carbohydrates. Rice straw is a valuable raw material. Thin and durable paper, ropes, ropes, baskets, and hats are made from it.

If you create the best conditions for rice to grow and develop, you can reap an exceptionally high harvest. Until 1958, the largest rice yield was considered to be 170 quintals per hectare. Since 1958, in the People's Republic of China, experimental plots began to produce yields of over 1000 centners per hectare.

Our Chinese friends received such fabulous harvests as a result of thickening the crops, deep tillage and abundant application of mineral and organic fertilizers. Rice culture in China is a transplant crop. Previously, there were about a million rice plants per hectare of crops there; on a hectare of experimental plots there are tens of times more of them - due to transplantation from other plots. With such a sowing density, there is almost no free space between plants. Rice in a thickened area is just ripening on the root, and the area of other areas is freed up for new planting. The grown and strengthened plants were transplanted to the experimental plot in deeply plowed and fertilized soil in several layers. They fertilized it with manure, silt, ground bones, leaves of bast crops, and chemical fertilizers.

But our Chinese friends receive high rice yields not only from experimental plots. For example, in five provinces - Jiangsu, Anhui, Hubei, Sichuan and Henan - an average rice yield of 375 centners per hectare was obtained in 1958.

Buckwheat grain is chemically similar to cereal grains. Buckwheat is used to prepare cereals. Therefore, we consider buckwheat in the same section with cereals, although it belongs to the buckwheat family.

Buckwheat- an annual herbaceous plant with a strongly branched, reddish and ribbed, non-lodging stem, up to a meter high. It is cultivated in all temperate countries, but the first place in terms of the size of sown areas and gross grain harvest belongs to the Soviet Union.

Buckwheat has the greatest economic importance. The nutritional value of its grain is higher than that of cereal grains. Buckwheat grain contains a lot of iron and organic acids (citric and malic). Its protein and carbohydrates are well absorbed by the body. Buckwheat has good taste.

Buckwheat is the most important honey plant, but the honey it produces is dark. Buckwheat flowering begins from the lower inflorescences, moves to the upper ones and extends in time until harvesting, so the period of honey collection from buckwheat crops is quite long. Buckwheat also ripens unevenly, and ripe grains may fall off. Therefore, buckwheat harvesting usually begins when two-thirds of the grains on the plant have reached full ripeness.

Buckwheat is an early ripening crop. From its germination to ripening it takes from 65 to 80 days. In the southern regions of the USSR, if there is a sufficient amount of precipitation in the second half of summer, with good agricultural technology it can produce high yields even in stubble sowing, that is, in sowing after harvesting.

When sowing in spring, winter rye, wheat, potatoes, beets, and flax will be good predecessors for it. Buckwheat seedlings are sensitive to frost, and its seeds germinate well at a soil temperature of 12-13°.

Buckwheat roots dissolve substances containing phosphoric acid well. Therefore, it is advisable to apply less superphosphate to buckwheat, but cheaper phosphate rock (see article “Fertilizers and their use”). Then, at a rate of 5-6 centners per hectare, it can increase the grain yield by one and a half to two times. Fresh manure or exclusively nitrogen fertilizers cause strong growth of green mass in buckwheat to the detriment of grain formation. If you add nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers to the soil, the yield of buckwheat increases sharply.

Buckwheat harvests have been low and unstable in the past. Currently, the leading collective farms of Ukraine, Tula, Moscow, Gorky and other regions receive buckwheat yields of 15-25 and even 30 centners per hectare.

The other day I received organic rye of an unusual green hue, I was surprised because before that I had only encountered dark brown rye. I suspected that it might not be ripe yet, but after seeing what rye is like, I calmed down: it can be yellow, brown, and even with a purple tint, and shaped like wheat - short and pot-bellied, and long, like oats, and, of course, like my current rye. But I came across grain of a uniform beige-green color, mostly whole, without damage or flaws, quite hard, not raw, which means it’s quite normal.

Raw grain is very difficult to grind, especially if you grind it with stone millstones: the grains will be smeared by the millstones, clog them and can damage the mill. But even if you grind flour from sprouted rye, you cannot bake good bread; it will turn out sticky and moist (but you can make malt from sprouted rye - but that’s another story).

With wheat flour, everything is more complicated, because its properties are influenced by many factors, and this is, first of all, the protein content. And in general, wheat flour can vary greatly depending on the batch; even in a store, flour with the same protein-carbohydrate indicators, but from different manufacturers, actually makes a big difference. Rye flour from batch to batch is approximately the same in its properties, especially when it comes to whole grain flour, which practically does not need resting after grinding and the concept of “strong” or “weak” does not apply to it.

I leafed through Auermann’s textbook and learned some very interesting things about rye flour. In general, it has a lot in common with wheat, despite the fact that the properties of dough made from rye flour are very different from dough made from wheat. Rye flour, like wheat flour, has a high carbohydrate content - about 70%, and a protein content - about 10-11%; it contains gluten, so it is not suitable for people allergic to it. Moreover, rye and wheat proteins have a similar amino acid composition, and rye protein, like wheat protein, contains gluten and gliadin, the very substances that make wheat protein elastic and elastic at the same time. However, dough made from rye flour cannot be called elastic and elastic, it is very sticky and slippery, it is useless to knead it, trying to achieve smoothness, gluten in the usual sense will never develop in it.

The reason for this is mucus (pentosans), which are present in large quantities in rye flour. They are also present in wheat, and in approximately the same quantity as in rye, but wheat pentosans are slightly soluble in water, while rye pentosans are mostly soluble. When rye flour is mixed with water, the same mucus begins to swell and envelop the bek particles, preventing it from forming threads. The rye flour mucilage itself is very moisture-intensive and can absorb almost ten times its own weight in moisture. In addition, they are very viscous, so much so that they surpass even gelatin in viscosity. If we compare a gelatin solution and a solution of rye pentosans of the same concentration, the pentosan solution will be more viscous. At this point I would like to clarify regarding the mucus of ripening rye flour after grinding. It is believed that rye flour (I mean whole grain) does not need to rest and can be used immediately, and bread baked from such flour will be incredibly tasty, an order of magnitude tastier than from flour that has rested. At the same time, after a couple of days of resting, rye flour changes its properties and becomes more moisture-intensive precisely due to the effect of oxygen on pentosans. During ripening, they increase their viscosity, rye flour retains moisture better, the dough, especially hearth products, spread and crack less during baking.

Here, for example, is rye sourdough during the stirring process: it is clear that the rye dough is in no hurry to dissolve in water, despite the large amount of liquid.

It is difficult to achieve uniformity; even with effort, the leaven spreads into large pieces, then small ones, which hold their shape for a long time.

Here's corn dough for comparison. As soon as it comes into contact with water, it begins to disintegrate into grains of flour; it is not restrained by either protein or mucus. The photo on the left is dry cornmeal in water, the photo on the left is corn dough. It can be seen that it simply by itself, only when it gets into water does it begin to disperse in the liquid.

The moisture capacity of rye flour is a merit not only of mucus, but also of protein. It is generally accepted that the protein of rye flour has no practical value because it cannot form the “framework” of the dough, as it does with wheat flour. Scientists even tried to wash rye gluten as an experiment, but they didn’t succeed. At the same time, it is also impossible to say that rye protein does not affect the properties of the dough in any way: it is capable of absorbing large amounts of water, swelling greatly and creating a viscous solution from particles of undissolved protein, mucus, starch and bran particles of grain, thereby actually forming "frame" of rye dough. True, this happens provided that the dough has reached a certain acidity, which is why rye bread is baked with sourdough.

As I wrote above, I got organic grain. I roughly imagined what this was: this means that while the rye was growing, it was not treated with chemicals and poisons, the land on which it grew, accordingly, was cultivated without synthetic fertilizers, and the harvested grain was stored without the use of toxic or, in principle, synthetic substances. In a word, the concept of “organic” for me was very general and meant “no chemistry.” But after talking with adherents of organic farming, I learned a lot of interesting and sometimes even controversial information. In fact, the difference between organic and non-organic is larger and broader - it is in the idea and approach. I recently had the opportunity to talk with Ukrainians - supporters of organic products, who grow cereals in the fields, vegetables and even graze cows on organic lawns, and so they are sure that organic food, in addition to being different in taste, has a different, bigger and better quality. nutritional and energy value. Simply put, organic food makes you feel full faster, while eating less than usual.

“Organic” grain growers treat their crops with herbal infusions (or preparations based on these herbs), which repel insects and destroy fungi and other enemies. It is also believed that annual plowing, which is practiced in “conventional” industrial fields, makes crops more vulnerable to bad weather, this depletes the land and reduces crop yield. Therefore, “organic” soil is fertilized exclusively with natural fertilizers, practically not plowed (or plowed, but not so deeply), and the ears of corn remaining after harvesting are left on the field to overwinter - under the cover of snow they will rot and enrich the soil. To protect the harvested crop from pests without the use of chemicals, it is regularly poured from bag to bag and the bags are lined with aromatic herbs. In general, these are the methods that our grandmothers used, including mine: in the barn where grain and hay were stored, she laid out bunches of yellow tansy, yarrow, St. John's wort and lavender, and the supplies remained safe and sound.

I don’t have that much beautiful rye with a green tint, only a couple kilos, so there’s no point in worrying too much that someone will eat it before me. Before grinding, I sorted through the grain a little, removing what caught my eye: particles of ears, grains of dirt, sunflower seeds and obviously damaged grains. In general, there was very little garbage; by the way, the wheat I got was more weedy.

I ground rye in my mill and now I want to show how it was and what kind of flour was obtained from organic grain. I usually grind wheat at the finest setting, but rye stalls at this setting: the millstones are spinning, the mill is humming, but nothing comes out. I moved the lever from “one” to “three” and saw my first rye flour!

At first it fell out, as usual, and then these things came out. However, the grind is no coarser than that of store-bought flour.

Someone named Masha diligently helped, because it was very important for me that the freshly ground flour be inspected, the grinding and especially the taste assessed.

My mill ground a kilogram of grain in about 5 minutes, and at the same time the flour fell intermittently, that is, there was a time when nothing flew out of the mill, and then a compressed lump of flour jumped out. I think this speaks about the moisture content of the grain - it is clearly higher than that of wheat. The ground flour turned out to be quite hot, I measured it - the temperature was 56.3 degrees.